GIANTS UNDER A MICROSCOPE: REVEALING SAUROPODOMORPH DINOSAUR PALEOBIOLOGY THROUGH THE BONE AND TOOTH MICROSTRUCTURE
Gigantes bajo el microscopio: Revelando la paleobiología de los dinosaurios sauropodomorfos a través de la microestructura de huesos y dientes
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.5710/Keywords:
Paleohistology, Bone histology, Tooth histology, Sauropodomorpha, Sauropoda, PaleobiologyAbstract
The paleobiology of sauropodomorph dinosaurs has historically garnered considerable interest, primarily because this clade includes the largest terrestrial vertebrates. Bone and tooth microstructures are crucial sources of paleobiological data, and many paleohistological studies have focused on this group. Here we review and synthesize the main advances in an understanding of sauropodomorph paleobiology derived from osteological and dental histology. We explore a wide range of topics, including age assessment, ontogenetic stages, growth rates, growth dynamics and life histories, skeletal element formation, soft tissue reconstructions, paleopathologies, paleocytology, and tooth implantation and replacement rates. We also provide a comprehensive bibliographic review of the published literature detailing sauropodomorph bone and/or tooth histology.
References
Aaron, J. E. (2012). Periosteal Sharpey’s fibers: a novel bone matrix regulatory system? Frontiers in Endocrinology, 3, 98. doi: 10.3389/fendo.2012.00098
Alcobendas, M., & Castanet, J. (2000). Bone growth plasticity among populations of Salamandra salamandra: interactions between internal and external factors. Herpetologica, 56(1), 14–26.
Amprino, R. (1947). La structure du tissu osseux envisagée comme expression de différences dans la vitesse de l’accroissement. Archives of Biology, 58, 315–330.
Anderson, J. F., Hall-Martin, A., & Russell, D. A. (1985). Long-bone circumference and weight in mammals, birds and dinosaurs. Journal of the Zoological Society of London. Series A, 207(1), 53–61.
Apaldetti, C., Martínez, R. N., Cerda, I. A., Pol, D., & Alcober, O. (2018). An early trend towards gigantism in Triassic sauropodomorph dinosaurs. Nature Ecology & Evolution, 2, 1227–1232. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-018-0599-y
Atterholt, J., & Woodward, H. N. (2021). A histological survey of avian post-natal skeletal ontogeny. PeerJ, 9, e12160. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.12160
Aureliano, T., Almeida, W., Fernandes, M. A., & Ghilardi, A. M. (2026). Several occurrences of osteomyelitis in dinosaurs from a site in the Bauru Group, Cretaceous of Southeast Brazil. The Anatomical Record, 309(3), 642–648. https://doi.org/10.1002/ar.70003
Aureliano, T., Nascimento, C. S. I., Fernandes, M. A., Ricardi-Branco, F., & Ghilardi, A. M. (2021b). Blood parasites and acute osteomyelitis in a non-avian dinosaur (Sauropoda, Titanosauria) from the Upper Cretaceous Adamantina Formation, Bauru Basin, Southeast Brazil. Cretaceous Research, 118, 104672. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cretres.2020.104672
Aureliano, T., Ghilardi, A. M., Navarro, B. A., Fernandes, M. A., Ricardi-Branco, F., & Wedel, M. J. (2021a). Exquisite air sac histological traces in a hyperpneumatized nanoid sauropod dinosaur from South America. Scientific Reports, 11(1), 24207. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-03682-7
Aureliano, T., Ghilardi, A. M., Silva-Junior, J. C. G., Martinelli, A. G., Ribeiro, L. C. B., Marinho, T., Fernandes, M. A., Ricardi-Branco, F., & Sander, P. M. (2020). Influence of taphonomy on histological evidence for vertebral pneumaticity in an Upper Cretaceous titanosaur from South America. Cretaceous Research, 108, 104337. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cretres.2019.104337
Baiano, M. A., & Cerda, I. A. (2023). Osteohistology of Aucasaurus garridoi (Dinosauria, Theropoda, Abelisauridae): inferences on lifestyle and growth strategy. Historical Biology, 35(5), 693–704. https://doi.org/10.1080/08912963.2022.2063052
Bailleul, A. M., O’Connor, J., & Schweitzer, M. H. (2019). Dinosaur paleohistology: review, trends and new avenues of investigation. PeerJ, 7, e7764. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.7764
Barbosa, F. H. S., Marinho, T. S., Iori, F. V., & Paschoa, L. S. (2019). A case of infection in an Aeolosaurini (Sauropoda) dinosaur from the Upper Cretaceous of São Paulo, southeastern Brazil, and the impact on its life. Cretaceous Research, 96, 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cretres.2018.11.018
Barbosa, F. H. S., Pereira, P. V. L. G. C., Bergqvist, L. P., & Rothschild, B. M. (2016). Multiple neoplasms in a single sauropod dinosaur from the Upper Cretaceous of Brazil. Cretaceous Research, 62, 13–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cretres.2016.01.010
Barbosa, F. H. S., Ribeiro, I. C., Pereira, P. V. L. G. C., & Bergqvist, L. P. (2018). Vertebral lesions in a titanosaurian dinosaur from the Early-Late Cretaceous of Brazil. Geobios, 51(5), 385–389. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geobios.2018.08.002
Barrett, P. M., Clarke, J. B., Brinkman, D. B., Chapman, S. D., & Ensom, P. C. (2002). Morphology, histology and identification of the ‘granicones’ from the Purbeck Limestone Formation (Lower Cretaceous: Berriasian) of Dorset, southern England. Cretaceous Research, 23(3), 279–295. https://doi.org/10.1006/cres.2002.1014
Barta, D. E., Griffin, C. T., & Norell, M. A. (2022). Osteohistology of a Triassic dinosaur population reveals highly variable growth trajectories typified early dinosaur ontogeny. Scientific Reports, 12, 17321. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-22216-x
Bellardini, F., & Cerda, I. A. (2017). Bone histology sheds light on the nature of the “dermal armor” of the enigmatic sauropod dinosaur Agustinia ligabuei Bonaparte, 1999. The Science of Nature, 104, 1. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00114-016-1423-7
Benton, M. J., Csiki, Z., Grigorescu, D., Redelstorff, R., Sander, P. M., Stein, K., & Weishampel, D. B. (2010). Dinosaurs and the island rule: The dwarfed dinosaurs from Haţeg Island. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 293(3-4), 438–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2010.01.026
Bertin, T. J. C., Thivichon-Prince, B., LeBlanc, A. R. H., Caldwell, M. W., & Viriot, L. (2018). Current perspectives on tooth implantation, attachment, and replacement in Amniota. Frontiers in Physiology, 9, 1630. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2018.01630
Botha, J., Choiniere, J. N., & Benson, R. B. (2022). Rapid growth preceded gigantism in sauropodomorph evolution. Current Biology, 32(20), 4501–4507. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2022.08.031
Bramble, K., LeBlanc, A. R. H., Lamoureux, D. O., Wosik, M., & Currie, P. J. (2017). Histological evidence for a dynamic dental battery in hadrosaurid dinosaurs. Scientific Reports, 7, 15787. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-16056-3
Britt, B. B. (1997). Postcranial pneumaticity. In P. D. Currie & K. Padian (Eds.), The encyclopedia of dinosaurs (pp. 590–593). Academic Press.
Brum, A. S., Bandeira, K. L. N., Sayão, J. M., Campos, D. A., & Kellner, A. W. A. (2022). Microstructure of axial bones of lithostrotian titanosaurs (Neosauropoda: Sauropodomorpha) shows extended fast-growing phase. Cretaceous Research, 136, 105220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cretres.2022.105220
Brum, A. S., Bandeira, K. L. N., Holgado, K., Souza, B. G., Pêgas, L. V., Sayão, R. M., Campos, J. A., & Kellner, A. W. A. (2021). Palaeohistology and palaeopatology of an aeolosaurini (Sauropoda: Titanosauria) from Morro do Cambambe (Upper Cretaceous, Brazil). Spanish Journal of Palaeontology, 36(1), 1–36. https://doi.org/10.7203/sjp.36.1.20305
Buffrénil, V. de, & Hémery, G. (2002). Variation in longevity, growth and morphology in exploited Nile monitors (Varanus niloticus) from Sahelian Africa. Journal of Herpetology, 36(3), 419–426. https://doi.org/10.1670/0022-1511(2002)036[0419:VILGAM]2.0.CO;2
Buffrénil, V. de, & Mazin, J.-M. (1990). Bone histology of the ichthyosaurs: comparative data and functional interpretation. Paleobiology, 16(4), 435–444. https://doi.org/10.1017/S009483730001014X
Buffrénil, V. de, Quilhac, A., & Cubo, J. (2021). Accretion rate and histological features of bone. In V. de Buffrénil, A. J. de Ricqlès, L. Zylberberg, & K. Padian (Eds.), Vertebrate skeletal histology and paleohistology (pp. 221–228). CRC Press.
Burns, M. E., & Currie, P. J. (2014). External and internal structure of ankylosaur (Dinosauria, Ornithischia) osteoderms and their systematic relevance. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 34(4), 835–851. https://doi.org/10.1080/02724634.2014.840309
Butler, R. J., Yates, A. M., Rauhut, O. W. M., & Foth, C. (2013). A pathological tail in a basal sauropodomorph dinosaur from South Africa: evidence of traumatic amputation? Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 33(1), 224–228. https://doi.org/10.1080/02724634.2012.710691
Campione, N. E., & Evans, D. C. (2012). A universal scaling relationship between body mass and proximal limb bone dimensions in quadrupedal terrestrial tetrapods. BMC Biology, 10, 60. https://doi.org/10.1186/1741-7007-10-60
Canoville, A., Chinsamy, A., & Angst, D. (2022). New comparative data on the long bone microstructure of large extant and extinct flightless birds. Diversity, 14(4), 298. https://doi.org/10.3390/d14040298
Carballido, J. L., Marpmann, J. S., Schwarz-Wings, D., & Pabst, B. (2012). New information on a juvenile sauropod specimen from the Morrison Formation and the reassessment of its systematic position. Palaeontology, 55(3), 567–582. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4983.2012.01139.x
Carballido, J. L., Pol, D., Cerda, I. A., & Salgado, L. (2011). The osteology of Chubutisaurus insignis del Corro, 1975 (Dinosauria: Neosauropoda) from the ‘middle’ Cretaceous of central Patagonia, Argentina. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 31(1), 93–110. https://doi.org/10.1080/02724634.2011.539651
Carballido, J. L., Scheil, M., Knötschke, N., & Sander, P. M. (2020). The appendicular skeleton of the dwarf macronarian sauropod Europasaurus holgeri from the Late Jurassic of Germany and a re-evaluation of its systematic affinities. Journal of Systematic Palaeontology, 18(9), 739–781. https://doi.org/10.1080/14772019.2019.1683770
Carballido, J. L., Pol, D., Otero, A., Cerda, I. A., Salgado, L., Garrido, A. C., Ramezani, J., Cúneo, N. R., & Krause, M. J. (2017). A new giant titanosaur sheds light on body mass evolution among sauropod dinosaurs. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 284(1860), 20171219. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2017.1219
Case, T. J. (1978). On the evolution and adaptive significance of postnatal growth rates in the terrestrial vertebrates. Quarterly Review of Biology, 53(3), 243–282. https://doi.org/10.1086/410641
Castanet, J., & Baez, M. (1991). Adaptation and evolution in Gallotia lizards from the Canary Islands: age, growth, maturity and longevity. Amphibia-Reptilia, 12(1), 81–102. https://doi.org/10.1163/156853891X00354
Castanet, J., Francillon-Viellot, H., Meunier, F. J., & Ricqlès, A. J. de (1993). Bone and individual aging. In B. K. Hall (Ed.), Bone: Bone growth–B (Vol. 7, Chap. 9). CRC Press.
Castanet, J., Rogers, K. C., Cubo, J., & Boisard, J. J. (2000). Periosteal bone growth rates in extant ratites (ostrich and emu): Implications for assessing growth in dinosaurs. Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences - Series III - Sciences de la Vie, 323(6), 543–550. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0764-4469(00)00181-5
Castanet, J., Croci, S., Aujard, F., M. Perret, J. Cubo, & Margerie, E. de (2004). Lines of arrested growth in bone and age estimation in a small primate: Microcebus murinus. Journal of Zoology, 263(1), 31–39. https://doi.org/10.1017/S095283690400483X
Cerda, I. A. (2009). Consideraciones sobre la histogénesis de las costillas cervicales en los dinosaurios saurópodos. Ameghiniana, 46(1), 193–198.
Cerda, I. A., & Powell, J. E. (2010). Dermal armor histology of Saltasaurus loricatus, an Upper Cretaceous sauropod dinosaur from Northwest Argentina. Acta Palaeontologica Polonica, 55(3), 389–398. https://doi.org/10.4202/app.2009.0044
Cerda, I. A., & Porfiri, J. D. (2025). Preliminary report of abelisaurid (Dinosauria, Theropoda) tooth and tooth attachment tissues. Ameghiniana, 62(6), 396–406. https://doi.org/10.5710/AMGH.07.08.2025.3651
Cerda, I. A., Desojo, J. B., & Scheyer, T. M. (2018). Novel data on aetosaur (Archosauria, Pseudosuchia) osteoderm microanatomy and histology: palaeobiological implications. Palaeontology, 61(5), 721–745. https://doi.org/10.1111/pala.12363
Cerda, I. A., Pol, D., & Chinsamy, A. (2014a). Osteohistological insight into the early stages of growth in Mussaurus patagonicus (Dinosauria, Sauropodomorpha). Historical Biology, 26(1), 110–121. https://doi.org/10.1080/08912963.2012.755677
Cerda, I. A., Pol, D., & Chinsamy, A. (2014b). Unusual endosteally formed bone tissue in a Patagonian basal sauropodomorph dinosaur. The Anatomical Record, 297(8), 1385–1391. https://doi.org/10.1002/ar.22935
Cerda, I. A., Salgado, L., & Powell, J. E. (2012). Extreme postcranial pneumaticity in sauropod dinosaurs from South America. Paläontologische Zeitschrift, 86(4), 441–449. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12542-012-0140-6
Cerda, I. A., Casal, G., Martínez, R., & Ibiricu, L. (2015b). Histological evidence for a supraspinous ligament in sauropod dinosaur. Royal Society Open Science, 2(10), 150369. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.150369
Cerda, I. A., García, R. A., Powell, J. E., & López, O. (2015a). Morphology, microanatomy and histology of titanosaur (Dinosauria, Sauropoda) osteoderms from the Upper Cretaceous of Patagonia. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 35(1), e905791. https://doi.org/10.1080/02724634.2014.905791
Cerda, I. A., Novas, F. E., Carballido, J. L., & Salgado, L. (2022b). Osteohistology of the hyperelongate hemispinous processes of Amargasaurus cazaui (Dinosauria: Sauropoda): Implications for soft tissue reconstruction and functional significance. Journal of Anatomy, 240(6), 1005–1019. https://doi.org/10.1111/joa.13659
Cerda, I. A., Pol, D., Otero, A., & Chinsamy, A. (2022a). Palaeobiology of the early sauropodomorph Mussaurus patagonicus inferred from its long bone histology. Palaeontology, 65(4), e12614. https://doi.org/10.1111/pala.12614
Cerda, I. A., Zurriaguz, V. L., Carballido, J. L., González, R., & Salgado, L. (2021). Osteology, paleohistology and phylogenetic relationships of Pellegrinisaurus powelli (Dinosauria: Sauropoda) from the Upper Cretaceous of Argentinean Patagonia. Cretaceous Research, 128, 104957. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cretres.2021.104957
Cerda, I. A., Chinsamy, A., Pol, D., Apaldetti, C., Otero, A., Powell, J. E., & Martínez, R. N. (2017). Novel insight into the origin of the growth dynamics of sauropod dinosaurs. PLoS One, 12(6), e0179707. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0179707
Cerda, I. A., Gasparini, Z., Coria, R. A., Salgado, L., Reguero, M., Ponce, D., Gonzalez, R., Jannello, J. M., & Moly, J. J. (2019). Paleobiological inferences for Antarctic dinosaur Antarctopelta oliveroi (Ornithischia: Ankylosauria) based on bone histology of the holotype. Cretaceous Research, 103, 104171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cretres.2019.07.001
Cerff, C. de, Krupandan, E., & Chinsamy, A. (2021). Palaeobiological implications of the osteohistology of a basal sauropodomorph dinosaur from South Africa. Historical Biology, 33(11), 2865–2877. https://doi.org/10.1080/08912963.2020.1833000
Chapelle, K. E. J., Botha, J., & Choiniere, J. N. (2021). Extreme growth plasticity in the early branching sauropodomorph Massospondylus carinatus. Biology Letters, 17(5), 20200843. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2020.0843
Chapelle, K. E. J., Botha, J., & Choiniere, J. N. (2023). Osteohistology reveals the smallest adult Jurassic sauropodomorph. Royal Society Open Science, 10(3), 221565. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.221565
Chapelle, K. E. J., Barrett, P. M., Botha, J., & Choiniere, J. N. (2019). Ngwevu intloko: a new early sauropodomorph dinosaur from the Lower Jurassic Elliot Formation of South Africa and comments on cranial ontogeny in Massospondylus carinatus. PeerJ, 7, e7240. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.7240
Chapelle, K. E. J., Barrett, P. M., Choiniere, J. N., & Botha, J. (2022). Interelemental osteohistological variation in Massospondylus carinatus and its implications for locomotion. PeerJ, 10, e13918. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.13918
Chen, J., LeBlanc, A. R. H., Jin, L., Huang, T., & Reisz, R. R. (2018). Tooth development, histology, and enamel microstructure in Changchunsaurus parvus: Implications for dental evolution in ornithopod dinosaurs. PLoS One, 13(11), Article e0205206. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0205206
Chiappe, L. M., Coria, R. A., Dingus, L., Jackson, F., Chinsamy, A., & Fox, M. (1998). Sauropod dinosaur embryos from the Late Cretaceous of Patagonia. Nature, 396(6708), 258–261. https://doi.org/10.1038/24370
Chinsamy, A. (1993). Bone histology and growth trajectory of the prosauropod dinosaur Massospondylus carinatus (Owen). Modern Geology, 18, 319–329.
Chinsamy, A. (2023). Palaeoecological deductions from osteohistology. Biology Letters, 19(6), 20230245. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2023.0245
Chinsamy, A., & Hurum, J. H. (2006). Bone microstructure and growth patterns of early mammals. Acta Palaeontologica Polonica, 51(2), 325–338.
Chinsamy, A., & Pereyra, M. E. (2026). Stochastic growth marks in Crocodylus niloticus. Scientific Reports, 16, 1811. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-31384-5
Chinsamy, A., & Tumarkin-Deratzian, A. R. (2009). Pathologic bone tissues in a Turkey vulture and a nonavian dinosaur: implications for interpreting endosteal bone and radial fibrolamellar bone in fossil dinosaurs. The Anatomical Record, 292(9), 1478–1484. https://doi.org/10.1002/ar.20991
Chinsamy, A., Cerda, I. A., & Powell, J. E. (2016). Vascularised endosteal bone tissue in armoured sauropod dinosaurs. Scientific Reports, 6, 24858. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep24858
Chinsamy, A., Tunoglu, C., & Thomas, D. B. (2012). Dental microstructure and geochemistry of Mosasaurus hoffmanni (Squamata: Mosasauridae) from the Late Cretaceous of Turkey. Bulletin de la Société Géologique de France, 183(2), 85–92. https://doi.org/10.2113/gssgfbull.183.2.85
Chinsamy, A., Thomas, D. B., Tumarkin-Deratzian, A. R., & Fiorillo, A. R. (2012). Hadrosaurs were perennial polar residents. The Anatomical Record, 295(4), 610–614. https://doi.org/10.1002/ar.22428
Chinsamy-Turan, A. (2005). The microstructure of dinosaur bone: Deciphering biology with fine-scale techniques. The Johns Hopkins University Press.
Company, J. (2011). Bone histology of the titanosaur Lirainosaurus astibiae (Dinosauria: Sauropoda) from the Latest Cretaceous of Spain. Naturwissenschaften, 98(1), 67–78. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00114-010-0742-y
Coria, R. A., Windholz, G. J., Ortega, F., & Currie, P. J. (2019). A new dicraeosaurid sauropod from the Lower Cretaceous (Mulichinco formation, Valanginian, Neuquén Basin) of Argentina. Cretaceous Research, 93, 33–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cretres.2018.08.019
Cruzado-Caballero, P., Filippi, L. S., González-Dionis, J., & Canudo, J. I. (2023). How common are lesions on the tails of sauropods? Two new pathologies in titanosaurs from the Late Cretaceous of Argentine Patagonia. Diversity, 15(3), 464. https://doi.org/10.3390/d15030464
Cubo, J., Le Roy, N., Martinez-Maza, C., & Montes, L. (2012). Paleohistological estimation of bone growth rate in extinct archosaurs. Paleobiology, 38(2), 335–349. https://doi.org/10.1666/08093.1
Curry, K. A. (1999). Ontogenetic histology of Apatosaurus (Dinosauria: Sauropoda): new insights on growth rates and longevity. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 19(4), 654–665. https://doi.org/10.1080/02724634.1999.10011179
Curry Rogers, K., & Erickson, G. M. (2005). Sauropod histology: microscopic views on the lives of giants. In K. Curry Rogers & J. A. Wilson (Eds.), The Sauropods: Evolution and Paleobiology (pp. 303–326). University of California Press.
Curry Rogers, K., & Kulik, Z. (2018). Osteohistology of Rapetosaurus krausei (Sauropoda: Titanosauria) from the Upper Cretaceous of Madagascar. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 38(4), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/02724634.2018.1493689
Curry Rogers, K., Whitney, M., D’Emic, M. D., & Bagley, B. (2016). Precocity in a tiny titanosaur from the Late Cretaceous of Madagascar. Science, 352(6284), 450–454. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaf1509
Curry Rogers, K., D’Emic, M. D., Rogers, R. R., Vickaryous, M., & Cagan, A. (2011). Sauropod dinosaur osteoderms from the Late Cretaceous of Madagascar. Nature Communications, 2, 564. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms1578
Curtin, A. J., Macdowell, A. A., Schaible, E. G., & Louise Roth, V. (2012). Non-invasive histological comparison of bone growth patterns among fossil and extant neonatal elephantids using synchrotron radiation x-ray microtomography. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 32(4), 939–955. https://doi.org/10.1080/02724634.2012.672388
D’Angelo, J. S., Garcia Marsà, J. A., Agnolín, F. L., & Novas, F. E. (2024). Biological implications of the bone microstructure of a new elasmosaurid (Sauropterygia, Plesiosauroidea) from the uppermost Cretaceous of Patagonia. Historical Biology, 36(4), 719–727. https://doi.org/10.1080/08912963.2023.2180744
Davesne, D., Schmitt, A. D., Fernandez, V., Benson, R. B. J., & Sanchez, S. (2020). Three-dimensional characterization of osteocyte volumes at multiple scales, and its relationship with bone biology and genome evolution in ray-finned fishes. Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 33(6), 808–830. https://doi.org/10.1111/jeb.13611
D’Emic, M. D., & Benson, R. B. (2013). Measurement, variation, and scaling of osteocyte lacunae: a case study in birds. Bone, 57(1), 300–310. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bone.2013.08.010
D’Emic, M. D., Wilson, J. A., & Chatterjee, S. (2009). The titanosaur (Dinosauria: Sauropoda) osteoderm record: review and first definitive specimen from India. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 29(1), 165–177. https://doi.org/10.1671/039.029.0131
D’Emic, M. D., Finch, S. P., Britt, B. B., & Wilson Mantilla, J. A. (2025). Increased sampling reveals the complex evolution of sauropod dinosaur tooth replacement rates. Journal of Anatomy, 247(4), 728–735. https://doi.org/10.1111/joa.14169
D’Emic, M. D., Whitlock, J. A., Smith, K. M., Fisher, D. C., & Wilson, J. A. (2013). Evolution of high tooth replacement rates in sauropod dinosaurs. PLoS One, 8(7), e69235. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0069235
D’Emic, M. D., O’Connor, P. M., Pascucci, T. R., Gavras, J. N., Mardakhayava, E., & Lund, E. K. (2019). Evolution of high tooth replacement rates in theropod dinosaurs. PLoS One, 14(11), e0224734. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0224734
Depéret, C. (1896). Note sur les dinosauriens sauropodes et théropodes du Crétacé supérieur de Madagascar. Bulletin de la Société Géologique de France, 21, 176–194.
Díez Díaz, V., Garcia, G., Pereda-Suberbiola, X., Jentgen-Ceschino, B., Stein, K., Godefroit, P., & Valentin, X. (2018). The titanosaurian dinosaur Atsinganosaurus velauciensis (Sauropoda) from the Upper Cretaceous of southern France: New material, phylogenetic affinities, and palaeobiogeographical implications. Cretaceous Research, 91, 429–456. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cretres.2018.06.015
Dodson, P., Krause, D. W., Forster, C. A., Sampson, S. D., & Ravoavy, F. (1998). Titanosaurid (Sauropoda) osteoderms from the Late Cretaceous of Madagascar. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 18(3), 563–568. https://doi.org/10.1080/02724634.1998.10011083
Dupuis, S. F. J., Bestwick, J., Hansen, D. M., Horn, E., Wiik, S., Frederiksen, R., Zboray, R., Tajbakhsh, K., Bachmann, U., Pabst, B., & Scheyer, T. M. (2025). Osteology and histology of a Plateosaurus trossingensis (Dinosauria: Sauropodomorpha) from the Upper Triassic of Switzerland with an advanced chronic pathology. Swiss Journal of Palaeontology, 144, 27. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13358-025-00368-3
Erickson, G. M. (1996a). Incremental lines of von Ebner in dinosaurs and the assessment of tooth replacement rates using growth line counts. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 93(25), 14623–14627. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.93.25.14623
Erickson, G. M. (1996b). Daily deposition of dentine in juvenile Alligator and assessment of tooth replacement rates using incremental line counts. Journal of Morphology, 228(2), 189–194. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-4687(199605)228:2<189::AID-JMOR5>3.0.CO;2-9
Erickson, G. M. (2014). On dinosaur growth. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, 42(1), 675–697. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-060313-054812
Erickson, K. M., & Druckenmiller, P. S. (2011). Longevity and growth rate estimates for a polar dinosaur: a Pachyrhinosaurus (Dinosauria: Neoceratopsia) specimen from the North Slope of Alaska showing a complete developmental record. Historical Biology, 23(4), 327–334. https://doi.org/10.1080/08912963.2010.546856
Erickson, G. M., & Tumanova, T. A. (2000). Growth curve and life history attributes of Psittacosaurus mongoliensis (Ceratopsia: Psittacosauridae) inferred from long bone histology. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 130(4), 551–566. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1096-3642.2000.tb02201.x
Erickson, G. M., Curry Rogers, K., & Yerby, S. A. (2001). Dinosaurian growth patterns and avian rapid growth rates. Nature, 412(6845), 429–433. https://doi.org/10.1038/35086558
Erickson, G. M., Curry Rogers, K., Varricchio, D. K., Norell, M. A., & Xu, X. (2007). Growth patterns in brooding dinosaurs reveals the timing of sexual maturity in non-avian dinosaurs and the genesis of the avian condition. Biology Letters, 3(5), 558–561. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2007.0254
Erickson, G. M., Sidebottom, M. A., Kay, D. I., Turner, K. T., Ip, N., Norell, M. A., Sawyer, W. G., & Krick, B. A. (2015). Wear biomechanics in the slicing dentition of the giant horned dinosaur Triceratops. Science Advances, 1(5), e1500055. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1500055
Fawcett, D. W. (1942). Amedullary bones of the Florida manatee (Trichechus latirostris). American Journal of Anatomy, 71(2), 271–309. https://doi.org/10.1002/aja.1000710206
Fernández, M. E., Windholz, G. J., & Zurriaguz, V. L. (2025). Palaeohistological characterisation of the caudal pneumaticity of Rocasaurus muniozi (Sauropoda: Titanosauria). Historical Biology. 38(2), 482–494. https://doi.org/10.1080/08912963.2025.2481526
Ferretti, M., Palumbo, C., Contri, M., & Marotti, G. (2002). Static and dynamic osteogenesis: two different types of bone formation. Anatomy and Embryology, 206(1), 21–29. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00429-002-0268-z
Fong, R. K. M., LeBlanc, A. R. H., Berman, D. S., & Reisz, R. R. (2016). Dental histology of Coelophysis bauri and the evolution of tooth attachment tissues in early dinosaurs: dinosaur dental histology. Journal of Morphology, 277(7), 916–924. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmor.20546
Francillon-Vieillot, H., Buffrénil, V. de, Castanet, J., Géraudie, J., Meunier, F. J., Sire, J. Y., Zylberberg, L., & Ricqlès, A. J. de (1990). Microstructure and mineralization of vertebrate skeletal tissues. In J. G. Carter (Ed.), Skeletal Biomineralization: Patterns, Processes and Evolutionary Trends (pp. 471–530). Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Franz-Odendaal, T. A., Hall, B. K., & Witten, P. E. (2006). Buried alive: how osteoblasts become osteocytes. Developmental Dynamics, 235(1), 176–190. https://doi.org/10.1002/dvdy.20603
Fronimos, J. A. (2021). Morphology and neurovascular anatomy of a titanosaur (Dinosauria, Sauropoda) osteoderm from the Upper Cretaceous of Big Bend National Park, Texas. Cretaceous Research, 120, 104670. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cretres.2020.104670
Gallina, P. A. (2011). Estudio anatómico, sistemático y paleobiológico de Bonitasaura salgadoi (Dinosauria: Sauropoda): su importancia en el contexto de la evolución de los titanosaurios del cretácico superior de la Argentina. [Tesis Doctoral, Universidad Nacional de La Plata]. https://doi.org/10.35537/10915/5280
Gallina, P. A. (2012). Histología del titanosaurio Bonitasaura salgadoi (Dinosauria: Sauropoda) del Cretácico superior de Patagonia. Ameghiniana, 49(3), 289–302.
Gallina, P. A., & Apesteguía, S. (2015). Postcranial anatomy of Bonitasaura salgadoi (Sauropoda, Titanosauria) from the Late Cretaceous of Patagonia. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 35(1), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/02724634.2014.924957
Gallina, P. A., Apesteguía, S., Canale, J. I., & Haluza, A. (2019). A new long-spined dinosaur from Patagonia sheds light on sauropod defense system. Scientific Reports, 9, 1392. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-37943-3
Games, I. (1990). Growth curves for the Nile crocodile as estimated by skeletochronology. Crocodiles: Proceedings of the 10th Working Meeting of the Crocodile Specialist Group, IUCN, Volume 1, 111–121.
García, R. A., & Cerda, I. A. (2010a). Dentición de los titanosaurios del Cretácico Superior de la provincia de Río Negro, Argentina: morfología, inserción y reemplazo. Ameghiniana, 47(1), 45–60.
García, R. A., & Cerda, I. A. (2010b). Dentition and histology in titanosaurian dinosaur embryos. Palaeontology, 53(2), 335–346. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4983.2010.00938.x
García, R. A., & Zurriaguz, V. (2016). Histology of teeth and tooth attachment in titanosaurs (Dinosauria; Sauropoda). Cretaceous Research, 57, 248–256. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cretres.2015.09.006
García, R. A., Cerda, I. A., Heller, M., Rothschild, B. M., & Zurriaguz, V. (2017). The first evidence of osteomyelitis in a sauropod dinosaur. Lethaia, 50(2), 227–236. https://doi.org/10.1111/let.12189
García, R. A., Salgado, L., Fernández, M. S., Cerda, I. A., Paulina-Carabajal, A., Otero, A., Coria, R. A., & Fiorelli, L. E. (2015). Paleobiology of titanosaurs: reproduction, development, histology, pneumaticity, locomotion and neuroanatomy from the South American fossil record. Ameghiniana, 52(1), 29–68.
Garrone, M. C., Cerda, I. A., & Tomassini, R. L. (2021). Ontogenetic variability in the limb bones histology of plains vizcacha (Lagostomus maximus, Chinchillidae, Rodentia): implications for life history reconstruction of fossil representatives. Historical Biology, 33(4), 558–573. https://doi.org/10.1080/08912963.2019.1648450
Gilmore, C. W. (1932). On a newly mounted skeleton of Diplodocus in the United States National Museum. Proceedings of the United States National Museum, 81(2941), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.5479/si.00963801.81-2941.1
González, R., Gallina, P. A., & Cerda, I. A. (2017). Multiple paleopathologies in the dinosaur Bonitasaura salgadoi (Sauropoda: Titanosauria) from the Upper Cretaceous of Patagonia, Argentina. Cretaceous Research, 79, 159–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cretres.2017.07.017
González, R., Cerda, I. A., Filippi, L. S., & Salgado, L. (2020). Early growth dynamics of titanosaur sauropods inferred from bone histology. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 537, 109404. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2010.109404
Gregory, T. R. (2001). The bigger the C-value, the larger the cell: genome size and red blood cell size in vertebrates. Blood Cells, Molecules, and Diseases, 27(5), 830–843. https://doi.org/10.1006/bcmd.2001.0457
Griebeler, E.M., Klein, N., & Sander, P.M. (2013). Aging, maturation and growth of sauropodomorph dinosaurs as deduced from growth curves using long bone histological data: an assessment of methodological constraints and solutions. PLoS ONE, 8(6), e67012. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0067012
Haines, R. W., & Mohuiddin, A. (1968). Metaplastic bone. Journal of Anatomy, 103(3), 527–538.
Hall, B. K. (2005). Bone and cartilage: Developmental and evolutionary skeletal biology. Elsevier Academic Press.
Hatcher, J. B. (1901). Diplodocus (Marsh): its osteology, taxonomy, and probable habits, with a restoration of the skeleton. Memoirs of the Carnegie Museum, Vol. 1, No. 1. Carnegie Institute.
Hayashi, S., Carpenter, K., & Suzuki, D. (2009). Different growth patterns between the skeleton and osteoderms of Stegosaurus (Ornithischia: Thyreophora). Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 29(1), 123–131. https://doi.org/10.1080/02724634.2009.10010366
Hayashi, S., Carpenter, K., Scheyer, T. M., Watabe, M., & Suzuki, D. (2010). Function and evolution of ankylosaur dermal armor. Acta Palaeontologica Polonica, 55(2), 213–228. https://doi.org/10.4202/app.2009.0044
Hedrick, B. P., Tumarkin-Deratzian, A. R., & Dodson, P. (2014). Bone microstructure and relative age of the holotype specimen of the diplodocoid sauropod dinosaur Suuwassea emilieae. Acta Palaeontologica Polonica, 59(2), 295–304. https://doi.org/10.4202/app.2012.0066
Hill, R. V. (2005). Integration of morphological data sets for phylogenetic analysis of Amniota: the importance of integumentary characters and increased taxonomic sampling. Systematic Biology, 54(4), 530–547. https://doi.org/10.1080/10635150591003326
Hill, R. V. (2006). Comparative anatomy and histology of xenarthran osteoderms. Journal of Morphology, 267(12), 1441–1460. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmor.10487
Horner, J. R., Padian, K., & Ricqlès, A. J. de (1999). Variation in dinosaur skeletochronology indicators: implications for age assessment. Paleobiology, 25(1), 49–78. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0094837300020055
Horner, J. R., Padian, K., & Ricqlès, A. J. de (2001). Comparative osteohistology of some embryonic and perinatal archosaurs: developmental and behavioral implications. Paleobiology, 27(1), 39–58. https://doi.org/10.1666/0094-8373(2001)027<0039:COOSEA>2.0.CO;2
Horner, J. R., Ricqlès, A. J. de & Padian, K. (2000). Long bone histology of the hadrosaurid dinosaur Maiasaura peeblesorum: growth dynamics and physiology based on an ontogenetic series of skeletal elements. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 20(1), 115–129. https://doi.org/10.1671/0272-4634(2000)020[0115:LBHOTH]2.0.CO;2
Horner, J. R., Woodward, H. N., & Bailleul, A. M. (2016). Mineralized tissues in dinosaurs interpreted as having formed through metaplasia: a preliminary evaluation. Comptes Rendus Palevol, 15(1-2), 176–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crpv.2015.01.006
Hübner, T. R. (2012). Bone histology in Dysalotosaurus lettowvorbecki (Ornithischia: Iguanodontia) – Variation, growth, and implications. PLoS ONE, 7(1), e29958. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0029958
Hugi, J., & Sánchez-Villagra, M. R. (2012). Life history and skeletal adaptations in the Galapagos marine iguana (Amblyrhynchus cristatus) as reconstructed with bone histological data—a comparative study of iguanines. Journal of Herpetology, 46(3), 312–324. https://doi.org/10.1670/11-071
Janensch, W. (1947). Pneumatizität bei Wirbeln von Sauropoden und anderen Saurischiern. Palaeontographica Abteilung A, 3, 1–25.
Janensch, W. (1950). Die Wirbelsäule von Brachiosaurus brancai. Palaeontographica (Supplement 7), 3, 27–93.
Jentgen-Ceschino, B., Stein, K., & Fischer, V. (2020). Case study of radial fibrolamellar bone tissues in the outer cortex of basal sauropods. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 375(1805), 20190143. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2019.0143
Jianu, C.-M., & Weishampel, D. B. (1999). The smallest of the largest: a new look at possible dwarfing in sauropod dinosaurs. Geologie en Mijnbouw, 78(3), 335–343. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1003885121303
Jones, S. J., & Boyde, A. (1974). The organization and gross mineralization patterns of the collagen fibres in Sharpey’s fibre bone. Cell and Tissue Research, 148(1), 83–96. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00224109
Kaikaew, S., Suteethorn, S., & Chinsamy, A. (2025). Novel report of an osteogenic tumor in a late Jurassic Mamenchisaurid from Thailand. Journal of Anatomy, 247(4), 699–711. https://doi.org/10.1111/joa.14266
Khonsue, W., Chaiananporn, T., & Pomchote, P. (2010). Skeletochronological assessment of age in the Himalayan crocodile newt, Tylototriton verrucosus (Anderson, 1871) from Thailand. Tropical Natural History, 10(2), 181–188.
Klein, N., & Sander, P. M. (2007). Bone histology and growth of the prosauropod Plateosaurus engelhardti Meyer, 1837 from the Norian bonebeds of Trossingen (Germany) and Frick (Switzerland). Special Papers in Palaeontology, 77, 169–206.
Klein, N., & Sander, P. M. (2008). Ontogenetic stages in the long bone histology of sauropod dinosaurs. Paleobiology, 34(2), 247–263. https://doi.org/10.1666/0094-8373(2008)034[0247:OSITLB]2.0.CO;2
Klein, N., Christian, A., & Sander, P. M. (2012b). Histology shows that elongated neck ribs in sauropod dinosaurs are ossified tendons. Biology Letters, 8(6), 1032–1035. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2012.0778
Klein, N., Sander, P. M., & Suteethorn, V. (2009). Bone histology and its implications for the life history and growth of the Early Cretaceous titanosaur Phuwiangosaurus sirindhornae. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 315(1), 217–228. https://doi.org/10.1144/SP315.15
Klein, N., Sander, P. M., Stein, K., Le Loeuff, J., Carballido, J. L., & Buffetaut, E. (2012a). Modified laminar bone in Ampelosaurus atacis and other titanosaurs (Sauropoda): Implications for Life history and physiology. PLoS ONE, 7(5), e36907. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0036907
Köhler, M., Herridge, V., Nacarino-Meneses, C., Fortuny, J., Moncunill‑Solé, B., Rosso, A., Sanfilippo, R., Palombo, M.R., & Moyà-Solà, S. (2021). Palaeohistology reveals a slow pace of life for the dwarfed Sicilian elephant. Scientific Reports, 11, 22862. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-02192-4
Kosch, J. C. D., & Zanno, L. E. (2020). Sampling impacts the assessment of tooth growth and replacement rates in archosaurs: Implications for paleontological studies. PeerJ, 8, e9918. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.9918
Krupandan, E., Chinsamy, A., & Pol, D. (2018). The long bone histology of the sauropodomorph, Antetonitrus ingenipes. The Anatomical Record, 301(9), 1506–1518. https://doi.org/10.1002/ar.23898
Lacovara, K. J., Lamanna, M. C., Ibiricu, L. M., Poole, J. C., Schroeter, E. R., & Ullmann, P. V. (2014). A gigantic, exceptionally complete titanosaurian sauropod dinosaur from Southern Patagonia, Argentina. Scientific Reports, 4, 6196. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep06196
Lambertz, M., Bertozzo, F., & Sander, P. M. (2018). Bone histological correlates for air sacs and their implications for understanding the origin of the dinosaurian respiratory system. Biology Letters, 14(5), 20170514. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2017.0514
LeBlanc, A. R. H., & Reisz, R. R. (2013). Periodontal ligament, cementum, and alveolar bone in the oldest herbivorous tetrapods, and their evolutionary significance. PLoS ONE, 8(9), e74697. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0074697
LeBlanc, A. R. H., Brink, K. S., Cullen, T. M., & Reisz, R. R. (2017). Evolutionary implications of tooth attachment versus tooth implantation: A case study using dinosaur, crocodilian, and mammal teeth. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 37(5), e1354006.
LeBlanc, A. R. H., Reisz, R. R., Evans, D. C., & Bailleul, A. M. (2016). Ontogeny reveals function and evolution of the hadrosaurid dinosaur dental battery. BMC Evolutionary Biology, 16, 152. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12862-016-0721-1
Le Loeuff, J., Buffetaut, E., Cavin, L., Martin, M., Martin, V., & Tong, H. (1994). An armoured titanosaurid sauropod from the Late Cretaceous of Southern France and the occurrence of osteoderms in the Titanosauridae. Gaia, 10, 155–159.
Lee, A. H., & Werning, S. (2008). Sexual maturity in growing dinosaurs does not fit reptilian growth models. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 105(2), 582–587. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0708903105
Lehman, T. M., & Woodward, H. N. (2008). Modeling growth rates for sauropod dinosaurs. Paleobiology, 34(2), 264–281.
Lovelace, D. M. (2014). Developmental failure of segmentation in a caudal vertebra of Apatosaurus (Sauropoda). Anatomical Record, 297(7), 1262–1269.
Maho, T., Bevitt, J. J., & Reisz, R. R. (2023). New specimens of the early Permian apex predator Varanops brevirostris at Richards Spur, Oklahoma, with histological information about its growth pattern. PeerJ, 11, e14898. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.14898
Main, R. P., Ricqlès, A. J. de, Horner, J. R., & Padian, K. (2005). The evolution and function of thyreophoran dinosaur scutes: Implications for plate function in stegosaurs. Paleobiology, 31(2), 291–314.
Mannion, P. D., Upchurch, P., Schwarz, D., & Wings, O. (2019). Taxonomic affinities of the putative titanosaurs from the Late Jurassic Tendaguru Formation of Tanzania: Phylogenetic and biogeographic implications for eusauropod dinosaur evolution. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 185(3), 784–909. https://doi.org/10.1093/zoolinnean/zly068
Marinho, T. S., & Iori, F. V. (2011). A large titanosaur (Dinosauria, Sauropoda) osteoderm with possible bite marks from Ibirá, São Paulo State, Brazil. In I. de S. Carvalho, N. K. Srivastava, O. Strochschoen Jr., & C. C. Lana (Eds.), Paleontologia: Cenários de Vida (Vol. 4, pp. 339–349). Editora Interciência.
Martinelli, A. G., Teixeira, V. P. A., Marinho, T. M., Fonseca, P. H. M., Cavellani, C. L., Araújo, A. J. G., Ribeiro, L. C. B., & Ferraz, L. F. M. (2015). Fused mid-caudal vertebrae in the titanosaur Uberabatitan ribeiroi from the Late Cretaceous of Brazil and other bone lesions. Lethaia, 48(4), 456–462. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/let.12117
Martínez, R. D. F., Lamanna, M. C., Novas, F. E., Ridgely, R. C., Casal, G. A., Martínez, J. E., Vita, J. R., & Witmer, L. M. (2016). A basal lithostrotian titanosaur (Dinosauria: Sauropoda) with a complete skull: Implications for the evolution and paleobiology of Titanosauria. PLoS ONE, 11(3), e0151661. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0151661
McPhee, B. W., Benson, R. B. J., Botha-Brink, J., Bordy, E. M., & Choiniere, J. N. (2018). A giant dinosaur from the Earliest Jurassic of South Africa and the transition to quadrupedality in early sauropodomorphs. Current Biology, 28(19), 3143–3151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2018.07.063
McWhinney, L., Carpenter, K., & Rothschild, B. M. (2001). Dinosaurian humeral periostitis: A case of a juxtacortical lesion in the fossil record. In D. H. Tanke, K. Carpenter, & M. W. Skrepnick (Eds.), Mesozoic Vertebrate Life (pp. 364–377). Indiana University Press.
Melstrom, K. M., D’Emic, M. D., Chure, D., & Wilson, J. A. (2016). A juvenile sauropod dinosaur from the Late Jurassic of Utah, U.S.A., presents further evidence of an avian style air-sac system. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 36(4), e1111898. https://doi.org/10.1080/02724634.2016.1111898
Mitchell, J., Sander, P. M., & Stein, K. (2017). Can secondary osteons be used as ontogenetic indicators in sauropods? Extending the histological ontogenetic stages into senescence. Paleobiology, 43(2), 321–342.
Mocho, P., Escaso, F., Marcos-Fernández, F., Páramo, A., Sanz, J. L., Vidal, D., & Ortega, F. (2024). A Spanish saltasauroid titanosaur reveals Europe as a melting pot of endemic and immigrant sauropods in the Late Cretaceous. Communications Biology, 7, 1016. https://doi.org/10.1038/s42003-024-06653-0
Moss, L. M. (1969). Comparative histology of dermal sclerifications in reptiles. Acta Anatomica, 73(4), 510–533. http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000143315
Myhrvold, N. P. (2013). Revisiting the estimation of dinosaur growth rates. PLoS ONE, 8(12), e81917. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0081917
Nacarino-Meneses, C., & Chinsamy, A. (2022). Mineralized-tissue histology reveals protracted life history in the Pliocene three-toed horse from Langebaanweg (South Africa). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 196(3), 1117–1137.
Nacarino Meneses, C., & Köhler, M. (2018). Limb bone histology records birth in mammals. PLoS ONE, 13(6), e0198511. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0198511
Navarro, B. A., Ghilardi, A. M., Aureliano, T., Díaz, V., Bandeira, K. L. N., Cattaruzzi, A. G. S., Iori, F. V., Martine, A. M., Carvalho, A. B., Anelli, L. E., Fernandes, M. A., & Zaher, H. (2022). A new nanoid titanosaur (Dinosauria: Sauropoda) from the Upper Cretaceous of Brazil. Ameghiniana, 59(5), 317–354. https://doi.org/10.5710/AMGH.25.08.2022.3477
Nikolov, V., Marlena, Y., Dochev, D., Konyovska, R., Sergeeva, I., & Latinka, H. (2020). Bone histology reveals the first record of titanosaur (Dinosauria: Sauropoda) from the Late Cretaceous of Bulgaria. Palaeontologia Electronica, 23(1), a10. https://doi.org/10.26879/879
Nopcsa, F. (1914). Über das Vorkommen der Dinosaurier in Siebenbürgen. Verhandlungen der Zoologisch-Botanischen Gesellschaft in Wien, 54, 12–14.
Organ, C. L., & Adams, J. (2005). The histology of ossified tendon in dinosaurs. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 25(3), 602–613. https://doi.org/10.1671/0272-4634(2005)025[0602:THOOTI]2.0.CO;2
Organ, C. L., & Shedlock, A. M. (2009). Palaeogenomics of pterosaurs and the evolution of small genome size in flying vertebrates. Biology Letters, 5(1), 47–50. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2008.0491. PMID: 18940771; PMCID: PMC2657748.
Organ, C. L., Brusatte, S. L., & Stein, K. (2009). Sauropod dinosaurs evolved moderately sized genomes unrelated to body size. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 276(1677), 4303–4308. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2009.1343
Organ, C. L., Canoville, A., Reisz, R. R., & Laurin, M. (2011). Paleogenomic data suggest mammal-like genome size in the ancestral amniote and derived large genome size in amphibians. Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 24(2), 372–380. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1420-9101.2010.02176.x
Organ, C. L., Shedlock, A. M., Meade, A., Pagel, M., & Edwards, S. V. (2007). Origin of avian genome size and structure in non-avian dinosaurs. Nature, 446(7132), 180–184. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature05621
Otero, A., & Pol, D. (2021). Ontogenetic changes in the postcranial skeleton of Mussaurus patagonicus (Dinosauria, Sauropodomorpha) and their impact on the phylogenetic relationships of early sauropodomorphs. Journal of Systematic Palaeontology, 19(21), 1467–1516. https://doi.org/10.1080/14772019.2022.2039311
Padian, M. A., Werning, S., & Horner, J. R. (2016). A hypothesis of differential secondary bone formation in dinosaurs. Comptes Rendus Palevol, 15(1-2), 40–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crpv.2015.03.002
Paulina-Carabajal, A., Barrios, F. T., Méndez, H. M., Cerda, I. A., & Lee, Y. N. (2021). A Late Cretaceous dinosaur and crocodyliform faunal association—based on isolate teeth and osteoderms—at Cerro Fortaleza Formation (Campanian-Maastrichtian) type locality, Santa Cruz, Argentina. PLoS ONE, 16(9), e0256233. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256233
Petermann, H., & Sander, P. M. (2013). Histological evidence for muscle insertion in extant amniote femora: Implications for muscle reconstruction in fossils. Journal of Anatomy, 222(4), 419–436. doi: 10.1111/joa.12028. Epub 2013 Feb 25. PMID: 23439026; PMCID: PMC3610035.
Pol, D., Otero, A., Apaldetti, C., & Martínez, R. N. (2021a). Triassic sauropodomorph dinosaurs from South America: The origin and diversification of dinosaur dominated herbivorous faunas. Journal of South American Earth Sciences, 107, 103145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2020.103145
Pol, D., Mancuso, A. C., Smith, R. M. H., Marsicano, C. A., Ramezani, J., Cerda, I. A., Otero, A., & Fernández, V. (2021b). Earliest evidence of herd-living and age segregation amongst dinosaurs. Scientific Reports, 11, 20023. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-99176-1
Ponce, D., Cerda, I. A., & Desojo, J. B. (2017). The osteoderm microstructure of Doswellia kaltenbachi, Vancleavea campi, and Chanaresuchus bonapartei and its implications for palaeobiology of stem archosaurs. Acta Palaeontologica Polonica, 62(4), 819–831. doi:https://doi.org/10.4202/app.00381.2017
Powell, J. E. (1980). Sobre la presencia de armadura dérmica en algunos dinosaurios titanosauridos. Acta Geológica Lilloana, 15, 41–47.
Preuschoft, H., & Klein, N. (2013). Torsion and bending in the neck and tail of sauropod dinosaurs and the function of cervical ribs: Insights from functional morphology and biomechanics. PLoS ONE, 8(10), e78574. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0078574
Prondvai, E. (2017). Medullary bone in fossils: Function, evolution and significance in growth curve reconstructions of extinct vertebrates. Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 30(3), 440–460. doi: 10.1111/jeb.13019. Epub 2016 Dec 8. PMID: 27862520.
Prondvai, E., Witten, P. E., Abourachid, A., Huysseune, A., & Adriaens, D. (2020). Extensive chondroid bone in juvenile duck limbs hints at accelerated growth mechanism in avian skeletogenesis. Journal of Anatomy, 236(3), 463–473. https://doi.org/10.1111/joa.13109
Reid, R. E. H. (1981). Lamellar-zonal bone with zones and annuli in the pelvis of a sauropod dinosaur. Nature, 292(5818), 49–51.
Reid, R. E. H. (1996). Bone histology of the Cleveland-Lloyd dinosaurs and of dinosaurs in general, Part I: Introduction to bone tissues. Brigham Young University Geology Studies, 41, 25–71.
Reid, R. E. H. (1997). Histology of bones and teeth. In J. O. Farlow & M. K. Brett-Surman (Eds.), The Complete Dinosaur (pp. 403–413). Indiana University Press.
Reisz, R. R., LeBlanc, A. R. H., Maddin, H. C., Dudgeon, T. W., Scott, D., Huang, T., Chen, J., Chen, M. C., & Zhong, S. (2020). Early Jurassic dinosaur fetal dental development and its significance for the evolution of sauropod dentition. Nature Communications, 11, 2240. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-16045-7
Reisz, R. R., Huang, T. D., Roberts, E. M., Peng, S. R., Sullivan, C., Stein, K., LeBlanc, A. R. H., Shieh, D. B., Chang, R. S., Chiang, C. C., Yang, C., & Zhong, S. (2013). Embryology of Early Jurassic dinosaur from China with evidence of preserved organic remains. Nature, 496(7444), 210–214. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature11978
Rensberger, J. M., & Martínez, R. N. (2015). Bone cells in birds show exceptional surface area, a characteristic tracing back to saurischian dinosaurs of the Late Triassic. PLoS ONE, 10(4), e0119083. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0119083
Ricart, R. S. D., Santucci, R. M., Andrade, M. B., Oliveira, C. E. M., Nava, W. R., & Degrazia, G. F. (2019). Dental histology of three notosuchians (Crocodylomorpha) from the Bauru Group, Upper Cretaceous, South-eastern Brazil. Historical Biology, 33(7), 1012–1023. https://doi.org/10.1080/08912963.2019.1675057
Ricqlès, A. J. de (1983). Cyclical growth in the log limbs bone of a sauropod dinosaur. Acta Palaeontologica Polonica, 28(1-2), 225–232.
Ricqlès, A. J. de, Pereda-Suberbiola, X., Gasparini, Z., & Olivero, E. (2001). Histology of dermal ossifications in an ankylosaurian dinosaur from late cretaceous of Antarctica. Asociación Paleontológica Argentina, Publicación Especial, 7, 171–174.
Rhodin, A. G. J. (1985). Comparative chondro-osseous development and growth of marine turtles. Copeia, 1985(3), 752–771.
Rimblot-Baly, F., Ricqlès, A. J. de, & Zylberberg, L. (1995). Analyse paléohistologique d’une série de croissance partielle chez Lapparentosaurus madagascariensis (Jurassique moyen): Essai sur la dynamique de croissance d’un dinosaure sauropode. Annales de Paléontologie, 81, 49–86.
Rothschild, B. M., & Berman, D. S. (1991). Fusion of caudal vertebrae in Late Jurassic sauropods. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 11(1), 29–36.
Rothschild, B. M., & Martin, L. D. (2006). Skeletal impact of disease. New Mexico Museum of Natural History & Science Bulletin, 33, 1–230.
Rothschild, B. M., & Tanke, D. (1992). Paleoscene 13. Paleopathology of vertebrates: Insights to lifestyle and health in the geological record. Geoscience Canada, 19(2), 73–82.
Salgado, L. (2003). Considerations on the bony plates assigned to titanosaurs. Ameghiniana, 40(3), 441–456.
Salgado, L., & Bonaparte, J. F. (1991). Un nuevo saurópodo Dicraeosauridae, Amargasaurus cazaui gen. et sp. nov., de la Formación La Amarga, Neocomiano de la provincia del Neuquén, Argentina. Ameghiniana, 28(3-4), 333–346.
Salgado, L., & Carvalho, I. S. (2008). Uberabatitan ribeiroi, a new titanosaur from the Marília Formation (Bauru Group, Upper Cretaceous), Minas Gerais, Brazil. Palaeontology, 51(4), 881–901.
Sanchez, S., Ricqlès, A. J. de, Ponstein, J., Tafforeau, P., & Zylberberg, L. (2025). Microstructure and development of the dermal ossicles of Antarctopelta oliveroi (Dinosauria, Ankylosauria): A complex morphogenetic system deciphered through three-dimensional X-ray microtomography. Journal of Anatomy, 247(4), 665–681. https://doi.org/10.1111/joa.14159
Sanchez, S., Dupret, V., Tafforeau, P., Trinajstic, K. M., Ryll, B., Gouttenoire, P. J., Wretman, L., Zylberberg, L., Peyrin, F., & Ahlberg, P. E. (2013). 3D microstructural architecture of muscle attachments in extant and fossil vertebrates revealed by synchrotron microtomography. PLoS ONE, 8(2), e56992. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0056992
Sander, P. M. (2000). Long bone histology of the Tendaguru sauropods: Implications for growth and biology. Paleobiology, 26(3), 466–488.
Sander, P. M., & Klein, N. (2005). Developmental plasticity in the life history of a prosauropod dinosaur. Science, 310(5755), 1800–1802. DOI: 10.1126/science.112012
Sander, P. M., & Tückmantel, C. (2003). Bone lamina thickness, bone apposition rates, and age estimates in sauropod humeri and femora. Paläontologische Zeitschrift, 76(2), 161–172.
Sander, P. M., Klein, N., Stein, K., & Wings, O. (2011a). Sauropod bone histology and implications for sauropod biology. In N. Klein, K. Remes, C. T. Gee, & P. M. Sander (Eds.), Biology of the Sauropod Dinosaurs: Understanding the Life of Giants (pp. 276–302). Indiana University Press.
Sander, P. M., Mateus, O., Laven, T., & Knötsche, N. (2006). Bone histology indicates insular dwarfism in a new Late Jurassic sauropod dinosaur. Nature, 441(7094), 739–741. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature04633
Sander, P. M., Klein, N., Buffetaut, E., Cuny, G., Suteethorn, V., & Le Loeuff, J. (2004). Adaptive radiation in sauropod dinosaurs: Bone histology indicates rapid evolution of giant body size through acceleration. Organisms, Diversity and Evolution, 4(3), 165–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ode.2003.12.002
Sander, P. M., Christian, A., Clauss, M., Fechner, R., Gee, C. T., Griebeler, E. M., Gunja, H. C., Hummel, J., Mallison, H., Perry, S. F., Preuschoft, H., Rauhut, O. W. M., Remes, K., Tütken, T., Wings, O., & Witzel, U. (2011b). Biology of the sauropod dinosaurs: The evolution of gigantism. Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, 86(1), 117–155. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-185X.2010.00137.x
Sanz, J. L., & Buscalioni, A. D. (1987). New evidence of armored dinosaurs in the Upper Cretaceous of Spain. In P. M. Currie & E. H. Koster (Eds.), 4th Symposium of Mesozoic Terrestrial Ecosystems, Short Papers (pp. 199–204). Royal Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology.
Scheyer, T. M., & Sander, P. M. (2004). Histology of ankylosaur osteoderms: Implications for systematics and function. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 24(4), 874–893. https://doi.org/10.1671/0272-4634(2004)024[0874:HOAOIF]2.0.CO;2
Scheyer, T. M., & Sander, P. M. (2007). Shell bone histology indicates terrestrial palaeoecology of basal turtles. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 274(1620), 1885–1893. doi: 10.1098/rspb.2007.0499. PMID: 17519193; PMCID: PMC2270937
Scheyer, T. M., & Sánchez-Villagra, M. R. (2007). Carapace bone histology in the giant pleurodiran turtle Stupendemys geographicus: Phylogeny and function. Acta Palaeontologica Polonica, 52(1), 137–154.
Schwarz, D., Frey, E., & Meyer, C. (2007a). Pneumaticity and soft tissue reconstructions in the neck of diplodocid and dicraeosaurid sauropods. Acta Palaeontologica Polonica, 52(1), 167–188.
Schwarz, D., Ikejiri, T., Breithaupt, B. H., Sander, P. M., & Klein, N. (2007b). A nearly complete skeleton of an early juvenile diplodocid (Dinosauria: Sauropoda) from the Lower Morrison Formation (Late Jurassic) of north central Wyoming and its implications for early ontogeny and pneumaticity in sauropods. Historical Biology, 19(3), 225–253. https://doi.org/10.1080/08912960601118651
Schweitzer, M. H., Wittmeyer, J. L., & Horner, J. R. (2005). Gender-specific reproductive tissue in ratites and Tyrannosaurus rex. Science, 308(5727), 1456–1460. DOI: 10.1126/science.111215
Schweitzer, M. H., Elsey, R. M., Dacke, C. G., Horner, J. R., & Lamm, E. T. (2007). Do egg-laying crocodilian (Alligator mississippiensis) archosaurs form medullary bone? Bone, 40(4), 1152–1158. doi: 10.1016/j.bone.2006.10.029. Epub 2007 Jan 12. PMID: 17223615.
Schweitzer, M. H., Zheng, W., Zanno, L., Werning, S., & Sugiyama, T. (2016). Chemistry supports the identification of gender-specific reproductive tissue in Tyrannosaurus rex. Scientific Reports, 6, 23009. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep23099
Seitz, A. L. L. (1907). Vergleichende Studien über den mikroskopischen Knochenbau fossiler und rezenter Reptilien, und dessen Bedeutung für das Wachstum und Umbildung des Knochengewebes im allgemeinen. Abhandlungen der Kaiserlichen Leopoldinisch-Carolinischen Deutschen Akademie der Naturforscher: Nova Acta, 87, 230–370.
Sellés, A. G., Marmi, J., Llácer, S., & Blanco, A. (2015). The youngest sauropod evidence in Europe. Historical Biology, 28(7), 930–940. https://doi.org/10.1080/08912963.2015.1059834
Sereno, P. C., Wilson, J. A., Witmer, L. M., Whitlock, J. A., Maga, A., Ide, O., Rowe, T. A., & Kemp, T. (2007). Structural extremes in a Cretaceous dinosaur. PLoS ONE, 2(11), e1230. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0001230
Silva Junior, C. G. J., Montefeltro, F. C., Marinho, T. S., Martinelli, A. G., & Langer, M. C. (2022). Finite elements analysis suggests a defensive role for osteoderms in titanosaur dinosaurs (Sauropoda). Cretaceous Research, 129, 105031. DOI:10.1016/j.cretres.2021.105031
Sire, J. Y., Donoghue, P. C. J., & Vickaryous, M. K. (2009). Origin and evolution of the integumentary skeleton in non-tetrapod vertebrates. Journal of Anatomy, 214(4), 409–440. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7580.2009.01046.x. PMID: 19422423; PMCID: PMC2736117.
Smith-Gill, S. J. (1983). Developmental plasticity: Developmental conversion versus phenotypic modulation. American Zoologist, 23(1), 47–55.
Sombathy, R., O’Connor, P. M., & D’Emic, M. D. (2025). Osteohistology of the unusually fast-growing theropod dinosaur Ceratosaurus. Journal of Anatomy, 247(4), 765–789. https://doi.org/10.1111/joa.14186
Starck, J. M., & Chinsamy, A. (2002). Bone microstructure and developmental plasticity in birds and other dinosaurs. Journal of Morphology, 254(3), 232–246.
Stein, K. W. H., & Werner, J. (2013). Preliminary analysis of osteocyte lacunar density in long bones of tetrapods: All measures are bigger in sauropod dinosaurs. PLoS ONE, 8(10), e77109. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0077109
Stein, K., Csiki, Z., Curry Rogers, K., Weishampel, D. B., Redelstorff, R., & Sander, P. M. (2010). Small body size and extreme cortical bone remodeling indicate phyletic dwarfism in Magyarosaurus dacus (Sauropoda: Titanosauria). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107(20), 9258–9263. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1000781107.
Sterli, J., De La Fuente, M. S., & Cerda, I. A. (2013). A new species of meiolaniform turtle and a revision of the Late Cretaceous Meiolaniformes of South America. Ameghiniana, 50(2), 240–256.
Sterli, J., Martínez, R. N., Cerda, I. A., & Apaldetti, C. (2020). Appearances can be deceptive: Bizarre shell microanatomy and histology in a new Triassic turtle (Testudinata) from Argentina at the dawn of turtles. Papers in Palaeontology, 7(2), 1097–1132. https://doi.org/10.1002/spp2.1334
Tan, C., Wang, P., Xiong, C., Wei, Z. Y., Tu, Y., Ma, Q. Y., Ren, X. X., & You, H. L. (2024). A sauropod tibia with initial fracture from the Middle Jurassic in Yunyang, Chongqing, southwest China. Historical Biology, 37(9), 2131–2138. https://doi.org/10.1080/08912963.2024.2403598
Tanke, D. H., & Rothschild, B. M. (2002). Dinosores: An annotated bibliography of dinosaur paleopathology and related topics—1838-2001. New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin, 20, 1–96.
Thompson, K. G., & Dittmer, K. E. (2016). Tumors of bone. En Tumors in Domestic Animals (5.ª ed., pp. 356–424). Wiley-Blackwell.
Toefy, F. Y., Krupandan, E., & Chinsamy, A. (2025). Palaeobiology and osteohistology of South African sauropodomorph dinosaurs. Journal of Anatomy, 247(4), 712–727. https://doi.org/10.1111/joa.14229
Tschopp, E., Wings, O., Frauenfelder, T., & Rothschild, B. M. (2016). Pathological phalanges in a camarasaurid sauropod dinosaur and implications on behaviour. Acta Paleontologica Polonica, 61(1), 125–134.
Vickaryous, M. K., & Hall, B. K. (2008). Development of the dermal skeleton in Alligator mississippiensis (Archosauria, Crocodylia) with comments on the homology of osteoderms. Journal of Morphology, 269(4), 398–422. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmor.10575
Vickaryous, M. K., & Sire, J. Y. (2009). The integumentary skeleton of tetrapods: Origin, evolution, and development. Journal of Anatomy, 214(4), 441–464. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7580.2008.01043.x
Vidal, D., Ortega, F., & Sanz, J. L. (2014). Titanosaur osteoderms from the Upper Cretaceous of Lo Hueco (Spain) and their implications on the armor of Laurasian titanosaurs. PLoS ONE, 9(7), e102488. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0102488
Vidal, D., Gascó, F., Serrano-Martínez, A., & Sanz, J. L. (2017). The internal anatomy of titanosaur osteoderms from the Upper Cretaceous of Spain is compatible with a role in oogenesis. Scientific Reports, 7, 42035. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep42035
Warner, D. A., Du, W. G., & Georges, A. (2018). Introduction to the special issue—Developmental plasticity in reptiles: Physiological mechanisms and ecological consequences. Journal of Experimental Zoology Part A: Ecological and Integrative Physiology, 329(4-5), 153–161. https://doi.org/10.1002/jez.2199
Waskow, K., & Mateus, O. (2017). Dorsal rib histology of dinosaurs and a crocodylomorph from western Portugal: Skeletochronological implications on age determination and life history traits. Comptes Rendus Palevol, 16(4), 425–439. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.crpv.2017.01.003
Waskow, K., & Sander, P. M. (2014). Growth record and histological variation in the dorsal ribs of Camarasaurus sp. (Sauropoda). Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 34(4), 852–869. https://doi.org/10.1080/02724634.2014.840645
Wedel, M. J. (2003). Vertebral pneumaticity, air sacs, and the physiology of sauropod dinosaurs. Paleobiology, 29(2), 243–255. https://doi.org/10.1666/0094-8373(2003)029<0243:VPASAT>2.0.CO;2
Wedel, M. J. (2005). Postcranial skeletal pneumaticity in sauropods and its implications for mass estimates. In J. A. Wilson & K. Curry-Rogers (Eds.), The Sauropods: Evolution and Paleobiology (pp. 201–228). University of California Press.
Wedel, M. J. (2009). Evidence for bird-like air sacs in saurischian dinosaurs. Journal of Experimental Zoology Part A: Ecological and Integrative Physiology, 311(8), 611–628. https://doi.org/10.1002/jez.513
Wedel, M. J., Cifelli, R. L., & Sanders, R. K. (2000). Osteology, paleobiology, and relationships of the sauropod dinosaur Sauroposeidon. Acta Palaeontologica Polonica, 45(4), 343–388.
Wiersma-Weyand, K., Aurore, C., Siber, H. J., & Sander, P. M. (2021). Testing hypothesis of skeletal unity using bone histology: The case of the sauropod remains from the Howe-Stephens and Howe Scott quarries (Morrison Formation, Wyoming, USA). Palaeontologia Electronica, 24(1), a10. https://doi.org/10.26879/766
Wilson, J. A., & Sereno, P. C. (1998). Early evolution and higher-level phylogeny of sauropod dinosaurs. Society of Vertebrate Paleontology Memoir, 5, 1–68.
Wilson, J. P., Woodruff, D. C., Gardner, J. D., Flora, H. M., Horner, J. R., & Organ, C. L. (2016). Vertebral adaptations to large body size in theropod dinosaurs. PLoS ONE, 11(7), e0158962. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0158962
Windholz, G. J., & Cerda, I. A. (2021). Paleohistology of two dicraeosaurid dinosaurs (Sauropoda; Diplodocoidea) from La Amarga Formation (Barremian–Aptian, Lower Cretaceous), Neuquén Basin, Argentina: Paleobiological implications. Cretaceous Research, 128, 104965. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cretres.2021.104965
Windholz, G. J., Coria, R. A., & Zurriaguz, V. L. (2019). Vertebral pneumatic structures in the Early Cretaceous sauropod dinosaur Pilmatueia faundezi from northwestern Patagonia, Argentina. Lethaia, 53(3), 369–381. https://doi.org/10.1111/let.12363
Windholz, G. J., Cerda, I. A., Carballido, J. L., & Rauhut, O. W. M. (2023). Palaeobiological inferences for the South American dicraeosaurid Brachytrachelopan mesai (Dinosauria; Sauropoda) based on bone histology of the holotype. Historical Biology, 35(10), 1871–1880. https://doi.org/10.1080/08912963.2022.2124373
Windholz, G., Meso, J., Wedel, M., & Pittman, M. (2025). First unambiguous record of pneumaticity in the axial skeleton of alvarezsaurians (Theropoda: Coelurosauria). PLoS ONE, 20(4), e0320121. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0320121
Windholz, G. J., González, R., Cerda, I. A., Bellardini, F., Silva, J. C. G., Marinho, T. S., Ribeiro, L. C. B., & Martinelli, A. G. (2024). Osteohistology of Uberabatitan ribeiroi (Dinosauria, Sauropoda) provides insight into the life history of titanosaurs. Historical Biology, 36(11), 2284–2294. https://doi.org/10.1080/08912963.2023.2253257
Witzmann, F., & Soler-Gijón, R. (2008). The bone histology of osteoderms in temnospondyl amphibians and in the chroniosuchian Bystrowiella. Acta Zoologica, 89(1), 1–19.
Witzmann, F., Hampe, O., Rothschild, B. M., Joger, U., Kosma, R., Schwarz, D., & Asbach, P. (2016). Subchondral cysts at synovial vertebral joints as analogies of Schmorl’s nodes in a sauropod dinosaur from Niger. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 36(2), e1080719. https://doi.org/10.1080/02724634.2016.1080719
Woodruff, D. C. (2016). Nuchal ligament reconstructions in diplodocid sauropods support horizontal neck feeding postures. Historical Biology, 29(3), 308–319. https://doi.org/10.1080/08912963.2016.1158257
Woodruff, D. C., & Foster, J. R. (2017). The first specimen of Camarasaurus (Dinosauria: Sauropoda) from Montana: The northernmost occurrence of the genus. PLoS ONE, 12(5), e0177423. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0177423
Woodruff, D. C., Atwood, NJ., & Madill, A. (2016). The structural preservation of a titanosaurid (Dinosauria: Sauropoda) vertebral ligament. Cretaceous Research, 60, 253–266. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cretres.2015.12.009
Woodruff, D. C., Curtice, B. D., & Foster, J. R. (2025). Seis-ing up the Super-Morrison formation sauropods. Journal of Anatomy, 247(4), 682–698. https://doi.org/10.1111/joa.14108
Woodruff, D. C., Fowler, D. W., & Horner, J. R. (2017). A new multi-faceted framework for deciphering diplodocid ontogeny. Palaeontologia Electronica, 20(3), 43A. palaeo-electronica.org/content/2017/1918-deciphering-diplodocid-growth
Woodruff, D. C., Wolff, E. D. S., Wedel, M. J., Dennison, S., & Witmer, L. M. (2022). The first occurrence of an avian-style respiratory infection in a non-avian dinosaur. Scientific Reports, 12, 1954. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-05761-3
Woodruff, D. C., Carr, T. D., Storrs, G. W., Waskow, K., Scannella, J. B., Nordén, K. K., & Wilson, J. P. (2018). The smallest diplodocid skull reveals cranial ontogeny and growth-related dietary changes in the largest dinosaurs. Scientific Reports, 8, 14341. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-32620-x
Woodward, H. N., & Lehman, T. (2009). Bone histology and microanatomy of Alamosaurus sanjuanensis (Sauropoda: Titanosauria) from the Maastrichtian of Big Bend National Park, Texas. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 29(3), 807–821.
Woodward, H. N., Horner, J. R., & Farlow, J. O. (2011). Osteohistological evidence for determinate growth in the American alligator. Journal of Herpetology, 45(3), 339–342. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41415296
Woodward, H. N., Horner, J. R., & Farlow, J. O. (2014). Quantification of intraskeletal histovariability in Alligator mississippiensis and implications for vertebrate osteohistology. PeerJ, 2, e422. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.422
Woodward, H. N., Myhrvold, N. P., & Horner, J. R. (2026). Prolonged growth and extended subadult development in the Tyrannosaurus rex species complex revealed by expanded histological sampling and statistical modeling. PeerJ, 14, e20469. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.20469
Woodward, H. N., Padian, K., & Lee, A. H. (2013). Skeletochronology. In K. Padian & E. T. Lamm (Eds.), Bone Histology of Fossil Tetrapods: Advancing Methods, Analysis, and Interpretation (pp. 195–215). University of California Press.
Woolley, M. R., Chinsamy, A., Govender, R., & Bester, M. N. (2021). Microanatomy and histology of bone pathologies of extant and extinct phocid seals. Historical Biology, 33(8), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/08912963.2019.1689238
Xing, L., Rothschild, B. M., Ran, H., Miyashita, T., Persons IV, W. S., Sekiya, T., Zhang, J., Wang, T., & Dong, Z. (2014). Vertebral fusion in two Early Jurassic sauropodomorph dinosaurs from the Lufeng Formation of Yunnan, China. Acta Palaeontologica Polonica, 60(3), 643–649.
Yates, A. M., Wedel, M. J., & Bonnan, M. F. (2012). The early evolution of postcranial skeletal pneumaticity in sauropodomorph dinosaurs. Acta Palaeontologica Polonica, 57(1), 85–100.
Yates, A. M., Bonnan, M. F., Neveling, J., Chinsamy, A., & Blackbeard, M. G. (2010). A new transitional sauropodomorph dinosaur from the early Jurassic of South Africa and the evolution of sauropod feeding and quadrupedalism. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 277(1682), 787–794. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2009.1440
Young, C. C., & Zhao, X. J. (1972). Mamenchisaurus hochuanensis sp. nov. Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology Monographs, A(8), 1–30.
Zhao, Q., Benton, M. J., Hayashi, S., & Xu, X. (2019). Ontogenetic stages of ceratopsian dinosaur Psittacosaurus in bone histology. Acta Palaeontologica Polonica, 64(2), 323–334.
Zurriaguz, V. (2017). New record of titanosaurian (Dinosauria: Sauropodomorpha) osteoderms from the Upper Cretaceous of North Patagonia. Cretaceous Research, 74, 175–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cretres.2017.02.015
Zurriaguz, V. L. (2025). Variation in the postcranial pneumaticity in derived titanosaurs (Dinosauria: Sauropoda). Historical Biology, 37(6), 1465–1479. https://doi.org/10.1080/08912963.2024.2377708
Zurriaguz, V. L., & Cerda, I. A. (2017). Caudal pneumaticity in derived titanosaurs (Dinosauria: Sauropoda). Cretaceous Research, 73, 14–24.
Zurriaguz, V. L., Cerda, I. A., Citton, P., Martinelli, A., Caratelli, M., Kaluza, J., Aravena, J., Guzmán, F., Pereira, L. N., & Schenardi, M. (2026). A juvenile specimen of Neuquensaurus australis (Dinosauria: Titanosauria) from the Upper Cretaceous of Argentina: Implications for sauropod ontogeny and growth dynamics. Historical Biology. 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/08912963.2026.2663156
Zylberberg, L. (2021). Bone cells and organic matrix. In V. de Buffrénil, L. Zylberberg, K. Padian, & A. J. de Ricqlès (Eds.), Comparative Skeletal Histology and Palaeohistology (pp. 85–108). CRC Press.
Zylberberg, L., & Castanet, J. (1985). New data on the structure and growth of the osteoderms in the reptile Anguis fragilis L. (Anguidae, Squamata). Journal of Morphology, 186(3), 327–342.
Additional Files
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Ignacio A. Cerda, Kristina Curry Rogers, Romina González, Anusuya Chinsamy
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Atribución/Reconocimiento 4.0 Internacional that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
0.299 Q3 | H Index 12
CiteScore 2.2
